After months of effort, I’m proud to announce the release of my new book, Laravel Testing Decoded! It’s my hope that you won’t find a better, more approachable resource for learning the ins and outs of testing in PHP. I’ve spent years learning how to explain complicated topics in such a way so that anyone can understand. So, if learning how to properly test has been on your bucket list for a while now, maybe it’s time to finally dive in!

I’ve seen it way too many times. As your application grows, so does your sloppy, untested codebase. Before long, you begin to drown, as your ability to manually test the application becomes unrealistic, or even impossible! It’s at these specific times, when you begin to realize the down-right necessity for testing. Sure, you might have read a TDD book in the past, but, like many things in life, we require real-life experience, before we suddenly – in a wonderful, blissful “aha moment” – get it.

The only problem is that testing can be a tricky thing. In fact, it’s quite possible that your codebase, as it currently stands, is untestable! What you may not realize is that, while, yes, testing does help to ensure that your code works as expected, following this pattern will also make you a better developer. That messy, untestable spaghetti code that you might have snuck into your project in the past will never happen again. Trust me: as soon as you bring the phrase “how could I test this” to the forefront of every new piece of code, you’ll, with a smile on your face, look back to your former self, and laugh at your crazy, cowboy ways. Welcome to modern software development.

While the principles of testing (and TDD) are language-agnostic, when it comes to execution, there are a variety of tools and techniques at your finger tips. This book is as much an introduction to TDD as it is a deep analysis of the Laravel way of testing applications. Updates will be free for life.

Laravel Testing Decoded may be purchased for $15.

Shell scripts are widely used in the UNIX world. They’re excellent for speeding up repetitive tasks and simplifying complex execution logic. They can be as simple as a set of commands, or they can orchestrate complex tasks. In this tutorial, we’ll learn more about the Bash scripting language by writing an example script step-by-step.

The Fizz-Buzz Problem

One of the best way to learn about a new language is by example. Let’s start with one.

The Fizz-Buzz problem is a very simple one. It became famous after a programmer, named Imran, used it as an interview test. It turns out that 90-99.5% of the candidates for a programming job are simply unable to write the simplest program. Imran took this simple Fizz-Buzz game and asked the candidates to solve it. Many followed Imran’s example, and, today, it is one of the most asked frequently asked questions for a programming job. If you’re hiring, and need a way to filter through 90% of the candidates, this is a great problem to present.

Here are the rules:

• Take and print the numbers between 1 and 100.
• When a number is divisible by 3, print “Fizz” instead of the number.
• When it is divisible by 5, print “Buzz” instead.
• When it is divisible both by 3 and 5, print “FizzBuzz”.

That’s all there is to it. I’m sure most of you can already visualize the two or three if statements to solve this. Let’s work through this using the Bash scripting language.

Shebang

A shebang refers to the combination of the hash and exclamation mark characters: #!. The program loader will look for a shebang on the first line of the script, and use the interpreter specified in it. A shebang consists of the following syntax: #!interpreter [parameters]. The interpreter is the program that is used to interpret our language. For bash scripting, that would be /bin/bash. For example, if you want to create a script in PHP and run it in console, you’d probably want to use /usr/bin/php (or the path to the PHP executable on your machine) as the interpreter.

#!/usr/bin/php
    <?php
    phpinfo();

Yes, that will actually work! Isn’t it simple? Just be sure to make your file executable first. Once you do, this script will output your PHP information as you would expect.

Tip: To ensure that your script will work on as many systems as possible, you can use /bin/env in the shebang. As such, instead of /bin/bash, you could use /bin/env bash, which will work on systems where the bash executable is not within /bin.

Outputting Text

The output of a script will be equal to, as you might expect, whatever is outputted from your command. However, if we explicitly want to write something to the screen, we can use echo.

#!/bin/bash
    
    echo "Hello World"

Running this script will print “Hello World” in the console.

csaba@csaba ~ $ ./helloWorld.sh
    Hello World
    csaba@csaba ~ $
    

Introducing Variables

As with any programming language, when writing shell scripts, you can use variables.

#!/bin/bash
    
    message="Hello World"
    echo $message

This code produces exactly the same “Hello World” message. As you can see, to assign a value to a variable, simply write its name – exclude the dollar sign in front of it. Also, be careful with spaces; there can’t be any spaces between the variable name and the equal sign. So message="Hello" instead of message = 'Hello'

When you wish to use a variable, you can take the value from it just as we did in the echo command. Prepending a $ to the variable’s name will return its value.

Printing the Numbers Between 1 and 100

Continuing on with our demo project, we need to cycle through all numbers between 1 and 100. For this, we’ll need to use a for loop.

#!/bin/bash
    
    for number in {1..100}; do
        echo $number
    done

There are several new things worth noting in this example – which by the way, prints all the numbers from 1 to 100, one number at a time.

• The for syntax in Bash is: for VARIABLE in RANGE; do COMMAND done.
• The curly braces will transform 1..100 into a range in our example. They’re used in other contexts as well, which we’ll review shortly.
• do and for are actually two separate commands. If you want to place two commands on a single line, you’ll need to separate them somehow. One way is to use semicolon. Alternatively you could write the code without a semicolon by moving do to the following line.

#!/bin/bash
    
    for number in {1..100}
    do
        echo $number
    done

The First Decision

Now that we know how to print all the numbers between 1 and 100, it’s time to make our first decision.

#!/bin/bash
    
    for number in {1..100}; do
        if [ $((number%3)) -eq 0 ]; then
            echo "Fizz"
        else
            echo $number
        fi
    done

This example will output “Fizz” for numbers divisible by 3. Again, we have to deal with a bit of new syntax. Let’s take them one by one.

• if..then..else..fi – this is the classic syntax for an if statement in Bash. Of course, the else part is optional – but required for our logic in this case.
• if COMMAND-RETURN-VALUE; then... – if will execute if the return value of the command is zero. Yes, logic in Bash is zero based, meaning that commands that execute successfully exit with a code of 0. If something goes wrong, on the other hand, a positive integer will be returned. To simplify things: anything other than 0 is considered false.
• Mathematical expressions in Bash are specified by double parentheses. $((number%3)) will return the remaining value of dividing the variable, number, by 3. Please note that we did not use $ inside the parenthesis – only in front of them.

You might be wondering where the command is in our example. Isn’t there just a bracket with an odd expression in it? Well, it turns out that [ is actually an executable command. To play around with this, try out the following commands in your console.

csaba@csaba ~ $ which [
    /usr/bin/[
    csaba@csaba ~ $ [ 0 -eq 1 ]
    csaba@csaba ~ $ echo $?
    1
    csaba@csaba ~ $ [ 0 -eq 0 ]
    csaba@csaba ~ $ echo $?
    0
    

Tip: A command's exit value is always returned into the variable, ? (question mark). It is overwritten after each new command's execution.

Checking for Buzz

We're doing well so far. We have "Fizz"; now let's do the "Buzz" part.

#!/bin/bash
    
    for number in {1..100}; do
        if [ $((number%3)) -eq 0 ]; then
            echo "Fizz"
        elif [ $((number%5)) -eq 0 ]; then
            echo "Buzz"
        else
            echo $number
        fi
    done

Above, we've introduced another condition for divisibility by 5: the elif statement. This, of course, translates to else if, and will be executed if the command following it returns true (or 0). As you can observe, the conditional statements within [] are usually evaluated with the help of parameters, such as -eq, which stands for "equals."

For the syntax, arg1 OP arg2, OP is one of -eq, -ne, -lt, -le, -gt, or -ge. These arithmetic binary operators return true if arg1 is equal to, not equal to, less than, less than or equal to, greater than, or greater than or equal to arg2, respectively.arg1 and arg2 may be positive or negative integers. - Bash Manual

When you're attempting to compare strings, you may use the well-known == sign, or even a single equal sign will do. != returns true when the strings are different.

But the Code isn't Quite Correct

So far, the code runs, but the logic is not correct. When the number is divisible by both 3 and 5, our logic will echo only "Fizz." Let's modify our Code to satisfy the last requirement of FizzBuzz.

#!/bin/bash
    
    for number in {1..100}; do
        output=""
        if [ $((number%3)) -eq 0 ]; then
            output="Fizz"
        fi
        if [ $((number%5)) -eq 0 ]; then
            output="${output}Buzz"
        fi
        if [ -z $output ]; then
            echo $number
        else
            echo $output;
        fi
    done

Again, we've had to make a handful of changes. The most notable one is the introduction of a variable, and then the concatenation of "Buzz" to it, if necessary. Strings in bash are typically defined between double quotes ("). Single quotes are usable as well, but for easier concatenation, doubles are the better choice. Within these double quotes, you can reference variables: some text $variable some other text" will replace $variable with its contents. When you want to concatenate variables with strings without spaces between them, you may prefer to put the variable's name within curly braces. In most cases, like PHP, you're not required to do so, but it helps a lot when it comes to the code's readability.

Because arguments inside [ ] are treated as parameters, for "[", they must be different from an empty string. So this expression, even though logical, will output an error: [ $output != "" ]. That's why we've used [ -z $output ], which returns true if the string has a length of zero.

Extract Method for Logical Expression

One way to improve our example is to extract into functions the mathematical expression from the if statements, like so:

#!/bin/bash
    
    function isDivisibleBy {
        return $(($1%$2))
    }
    
    for number in {1..100}; do
        output=""
        if isDivisibleBy $number 3; then
            output="Fizz"
        fi
        if isDivisibleBy $number 5; then
            output="${output}Buzz"
        fi
        if [ -z $output ]; then
            echo $number
        else
            echo $output;
        fi
    done

We took the expressions comparing the rest with zero, and moved them into a function. Even more, we eliminated the comparison with zero, because zero means true for us. We only have to return the value from the mathematical expression - very simple!

In Bash, you can define a method as function func_name { commands; }. Optionally, there is a second syntax for declaring functions: func_name () { commands; }. So, we can drop the string, function and add "()" after its name. I personally prefer this option, as exemplified in the example above. It's more explicit and resembles traditional programming languages.

You do not need to specify the parameters for a function in Bash. Sending parameters to a function is accomplished by simply enumerating over them after the function call separated by white spaces. Do not place commas or parenthesis in the function call - it won't work.

Received parameters are automatically assigned to variables by number. The first parameter goes to $1, the second to $2, and so on. The special variable, $0 refers the current script's file name.

Let's Play with Parameters

#!/bin/bash
    
    function exampleFunc {
        echo $1
        echo $0
        IFS="X"
        echo "$@"
        echo "$*"
    }
    
    exampleFunc "one" "two" "three"

This code will produce the following output:

csaba@csaba ~ $ ./parametersExamples.sh
    one
    ./parametersExamples.sh
    one two thre
    oneXtwoXthre
    

Let's analyze the source, line by line.

• The last line is the function call. We call it with three string parameters.
• The first line after the shebang is the function definition.
• The first line in the function outputs the first parameter: "one". So far so simple.
• The second line outputs current script's file name. Again, very simple.
• The third line changes the default character separator to the letter, "X". By default, this is " " (a space). That's how Bash knows how the parameters are separated.
• The fourth line outputs a special variable, $@. It represents all the parameters as a single word, exactly as specified in the function call.
• The final line outputs another special variable, $*. It represents all the parameters, taken one-by-one and concatenated with the first letter of the IFS variable. That's why the result is oneXtwoXthre.

Returning Strings From Functions

As I noted earlier, functions in Bash can return only integers. As such, writing return "a string" would be invalid code. Still, in many situations, you need more than just a zero or one. We can refactor our FizzBuzz example so that, in the for statement, we will just make a function call.

#!/bin/bash
    
    function isDivisibleBy {
        return $(($1%$2))
    }
    
    function fizzOrBuzz {
        output=""
        if isDivisibleBy $1 3; then
            output="Fizz"
        fi
        if isDivisibleBy $1 5; then
            output="${output}Buzz"
        fi
        if [ -z $output ]; then
            echo $1
        else
            echo $output;
        fi
    }
    
    for number in {1..100}; do
        fizzOrBuzz $number
    done

Well, this is the first step. We just extracted all the code into a function, called fizzOrBuzz, and then replaced $number with $1. However, all outputting occurs in the fizzOrBuzz function. We want to output from the for loop with an echo statement, so that we can prepend each line with another string. We have to capture the fizzOrBuzz function's output.

#[...]
    for number in {1..100}; do
        echo "-`fizzOrBuzz $number`"
        fizzBuzzer=$(fizzOrBuzz $number)
        echo "-${fizzBuzzer}"
    done

We've updated our for loop just a bit (no other changes). We've now echoed everything twice in two different ways to exemplify the differences between the two solutions to the same problem.

The first solution to capture the output of a function or another command is to use backticks. In 99% of the cases, this will work just fine. You can simply reference a variable within backticks by their names, as we did with $number. The first few lines of the output should now look like:

csaba@csaba ~/Personal/Programming/NetTuts/The Basics of BASH Scripting/Sources $ ./fizzBuzz.sh
    -1
    -1
    -2
    -2
    -Fizz
    -Fizz
    -4
    -4
    -Buzz
    -Buzz
    -Fizz
    -Fizz
    -7
    -7
    

As you can see, everything is duplicated. Same output.

For the second solution, we've chosen to first assign the return value to a variable. In that assignment, we used $(), which, in this case, forks the script, executes the code, and returns its output.

;, && and ||

Do you remember that we used semicolon here and there? They can be used to execute several commands written on the same line. If you separate them by semicolons, they will just simply be executed.

A more sophisticated case is to use && between two commands. Yes, that's a logical AND; it means that the second command will be executed only if the first one returns true (it exits with 0). This is helpful; we can simplify the if statements into these shorthands:

#!/bin/bash
    
    function isDivisibleBy {
        return $(($1%$2))
    }
    
    function fizzOrBuzz {
        output=""
        isDivisibleBy $1 3 && output="Fizz"
        isDivisibleBy $1 5 && output="${output}Buzz"
        if [ -z $output ]; then
            echo $1
        else
            echo $output;
        fi
    }
    
    for number in {1..100}; do
        echo "-`fizzOrBuzz $number`"
    done

As our function, isDivisibleBy returns a proper return value, we can then use && to set the variable we want. What's after && will be executed only if the condition is true. In the same manner, we can use || (double pipe character) as a logical OR. Here's a quick example below.

csaba@csaba ~ $ echo "bubu" || echo "bibi"
    bubu
    csaba@csaba ~ $ echo false || echo "bibi"
    false
    csaba@csaba ~ $

Final Thoughts

So that does it for this tutorial! I hope that you've picked up a handful of new tips and techniques for writing your own Bash scripts. Thanks for reading, and stay tuned for more advanced articles on this subject.

This is an excerpt of an article by Jon L. Denby of NYU explaining a Coding 101 course using our curriculum. If you're interested in using Codecademy in the classroom, get started here.

"If you don't speak 'computer' in our current economy, it's a little like not being able to read the street signs; it's a major handicap," says Leibovitz.

Thankfully, there is no shortage of students eager to learn.

Leibovitz's first class, co-taught with programmer David Hu in fall 2012, had only 50 seats available. They were all reserved in less than three minutes of class registration opening, and the wait list grew to 120 students.

While teaching courses at NYU Steinhardt like Video Game Theory, Video Game Industry, and Digital Literacy, Professor Leibovitz realized that many of his students lacked an understanding of how digital systems actually worked. He was looking for a simple way to teach his students computer programming when he stumbled upon the Codecademy website:

I realized it was a really, really good solution for several reasons. First of all, it was something that was modular. You could do it on your own time. You could do several units, or all the units or tracks. It really gave you options.

It was also based on real-world, complete projects—I mean every single track that you have there is based on building a game, building a tip-calculator, building a Blackjack game, building a choose-your-own-adventure game—all kinds of real-world projects. It was written in this language that I thought would resonate tremendously well with our students because it was down to earth, it was English, it was easy to understand.

Continue reading here.

We always try our best to challenge your artistic abilities and produce some interesting, beautiful and creative artwork. And as designers we usually turn to different sources of inspiration. As a matter of fact, we’ve discovered the best one—desktop wallpapers that are a little more distinctive than the usual crowd.

This creativity mission has been going on for over five years now, and we are very thankful to all the designers who have contributed and are still diligently contributing each month. This post features free desktop wallpapers created by artists across the globe for June 2013. Both versions with a calendar and without a calendar can be downloaded for free. It’s time to freshen up your wallpaper!

Please note that:

• All images can be clicked on and lead to the preview of the wallpaper,
• You can feature your work in our magazine by taking part in our Desktop Wallpaper Calendar series. We are regularly looking for creative designers and artists to be featured on Smashing Magazine. Are you one of them?

Something Fresh

Designed by Wallpaper FX from Romania

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• with calendar: 320×480, 1024×768, 1024×1024, 1280×800, 1280×1024, 1440×900, 1680×1050, 1920×1080, 1920×1200, 2560×1440

I love Paris

Designed by Dreebies from Poland

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• without calendar: 1280×1024, 1440×900, 1680×1050, 1920×1080, 1920×1200

It smells like Summer!

“June brings the smell of Summer! So let’s enjoy the sunny days getting a surfboard or sunbathing on the beach!” — Designed by WebOlution from Greece

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• without calendar: 320×480, 1024×1024, 1280×800, 1280×1024, 1366×768, 1680×1050, 1920×1080, 1920×1200, 2560×1440, 2560×1600

Ice Creams Away!

“Summer is taking off with some magical ice cream hot air balloons.” — Designed by Sasha Endoh from Canada

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Viking Meat War

“Designed by Ricardo Gimenes from Brazil.” — Designed by Ricardo Gimenes from Brazil

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• without calendar: 320×480, 640×960, 1024×768, 1024×1024, 1280×800, 1280×960, 1280×1024, 1366×768, 1400×1050, 1440×900, 1600×1050, 1600×1200, 1680×1050, 1680×1200, 1920×1080, 1920×1200, 1920×1440, 2560×1440, 2880×1800

Harvey Milk

“Designed by Greentree Graphics designer, Amy Coons, from the USA.” — Designed by Amy Coons from United States

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• without calendar: 1024×768, 1280×800, 1280×1024, 1440×900, 1680×1050, 1920×1080

National Doughnut Day

“Enjoy June 7th with this National Doughnut Day Wallpaper” — Designed by Andrew Stanton from United States

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Summer

Designed by Bart Goris from Belgium

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Skateboarding Day

“World Skateboarding Day.” — Designed by cheloveche.ru from Russia

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• without calendar: 1024×768, 1280×800, 1280×1024, 1440×900, 1680×1050, 1920×1200

Beat the Heat, Go for a Holiday!

“Beat the heat tap your feet! enjoy this summer, go for a holiday!” — Designed by debobrata debnath from India

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Healthy Living

“Learn how to live a long and healthy life, practice a healthy lifestyles, exercise, diet, release stress…” — Designed by Eloise Ha from Malaysia

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Someone Needing Blood Somewhere

“14 May 2013 – World Blood Donor Day. The event serves to raise awareness of the need for safe blood and blood products and to thank voluntary unpaid blood donors for their life-saving gifts of blood.” — Designed by Nutan Doiphode from India

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Father’s Day: Never Lose Hope

“I made this wallpaper to give special attention to all the fathers with severe illness.” — Designed by Yakari Van Dessel from Belgium

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Do You Remember

“Remember the king of pop” — Designed by Hannes Verdoodt from Belgium

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Fire Hydrant

“Time to pop the fire hydrants as June heats the summer up.” — Designed by Marshall Taylor from Canada

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I’d rather be playing cello.

“Day-dreaming about the cello.” — Designed by Jonathan Mellas from USA

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• without calendar: 320×480, 640×480, 800×480, 800×600, 1024×768, 1024×1024, 1152×864, 1280×720, 1280×800, 1280×960, 1280×1024, 1400×1050, 1440×900, 1600×1200, 1680×1050, 1680×1200, 1920×1080, 1920×1200, 1920×1440, 2560×1440

Digitalized Love Typography Sketch

“Digging through my old sketches, I found this one I had almost forgotten about… With a little help from Ricardo, the sketch was brought to life in a jiffy! Hope you like it :-)” — Designed by Iris Lješnjanin from Freiburg, Germany

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• without calendar: 320×480, 640×960, 1024×768, 1024×1024, 1280×800, 1280×960, 1280×1024, 1366×768, 1400×1050, 1440×900, 1600×1050, 1600×1200, 1680×1050, 1680×1200, 1920×1080, 1920×1200, 1920×1440, 2560×1440, 2880×1800

Watchmen

“My Soul waits for the Lord more than a Watchmen for the morning” — Designed by Pat Buenaobra from Philippines

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Love Thy Neighbor

“I created a little “Love Thy Neighbor” cross-stitching (with a subtle rainbow-colored nod to LGBT Pride Month), then I put it in a frame and hung it on the wall for everyone to enjoy! :)” — Designed by Jeremy Martinez from USA

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Free

“Celebrating Philippine Independence” — Designed by Dsaurus from the Philippines

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Balloons at Sunrise

“Hot-air balloon ride on a summer morning.” — Designed by dangerbrain from USA

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Hot Typography

“Dear Smashing Mag Team, This is our first contribution to Smashing Magazine Monthly Wallpapers collection. Please spare us if we did not understand & follow any rule. This is simple typographic wallpaper for Hotter June. Designed using 3 colors. We expect to be included in this June Month Wallpapers Collectoin. Thanks in Advance. Team Zanetine. Zanetine Web Design www.zanetine.com” — Designed by Zanetine Web Design from India

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Leaf

Designed by Michael K. and Kai Szendi from Austria

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• without calendar: 320×480, 640×480, 800×480, 800×600, 1024×768, 1024×1024, 1152×864, 1280×720, 1280×800, 1280×960, 1280×1024, 1400×1050, 1440×900, 1600×1200, 1680×1050, 1680×1200, 1920×1080, 1920×1200, 1920×1440, 2560×1440

Wedding Month

“June is a beautiful month with plenty of sunshine and pretty flowers, no wonder it’s a popular month for weddings! I made this calendar to celebrate June and also to celebrate my wedding anniversary!” — Designed by Thuy Truong from USA

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Abstract June

Designed by Glenn Van Haute from Belgium

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Rath Yatra

“The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July, they are brought out onto the main street of Puri (Bada Danda) and travel (3 km) to the Shri Gundicha Temple,in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have Holy view (darsana). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha).” — Designed by The Dreamer Designs from India

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• without calendar: 1024×1024, 1280×800, 1280×1024, 1440×900, 1680×1050, 1920×1080, 1920×1200

Rainy Season

“It will be raining cats and dogs during the rainy season in Japan.” — Designed by Evacomics from Singapore

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Small world

Designed by Oxana Kostromina from Germany/Russia

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• without calendar: 1024×768, 1366×768, 1024×1024, 1280×800, 1280×1024, 1440×900, 1680×1050, 1920×1080, 1920×1200, 2560×1440

Join In Next Month!

Please note that we respect and carefully consider the ideas and motivation behind each and every artist’s work. This is why we give all artists the full freedom to explore their creativity and express emotions and experience throughout their works. This is also why the themes of the wallpapers weren’t anyhow influenced by us, but rather designed from scratch by the artists themselves.

A big thank you to all the designers for their participation. Join in next month!

What’s Your Favorite?

What’s your favorite theme or wallpaper for this month? Please let us know in the comment section below.

Further Reading

• Beautiful iPhone And iPad Retina Wallpapers
• Creating A Lasting Impression
• Desktop Wallpaper Calendar: June 2012

© The Smashing Editorial for Smashing Magazine, 2013.